Louisiana State University had been ordered by a three-judge federal panel to admit black students to the law school, an order only three months later summarily affirmed by the Supreme Court. The NAACP's fight against segregated education--the first public interest litigation campaign--culminated in the 1954 Brown decision. HISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. Racist demagogues were sure to charge that black and white children attending elementary and secondary schools together would lead to the dreaded scourge of race mixing. He was immediately rejected. Given the events that led up to Browntrials lasting several days in Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, Delaware, and the District of Columbia; testimony presented by dozens of witnesses; and several days of intense arguments in the Supreme Court over a two-year periodthe opinion in Brown is remarkable in its brevity and simplicity. Claymont offered several extracurricular activities that were not available at Howard. Black people were only 7.5 percent of the state's population, and though they were, in general, relegated to the lowest rung of the economic ladder, they were allowed in some of the same civic organizations as whites. Careful selection of the right plaintiff had paid off. It was an argument that segregation inherently produced inequality. Relying heavily on the foundation developed in cases such as McLaurin and Sweatt, as well as the social science evidence presented by Dr. Clark and others, the Court held that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" (italics added). Marshall and his associates knew they would have to choose their cases and their clients carefully. The NAACP was established to: End racial segregation Bring about social justice Create equal opportunities for colored peop le. The NAACP is the oldest and most recognized civil rights organization in the United States. The legislature moved to provide a more credible alternative. What strategy did the NAACP use to try and end segregation? Moreover, he continued, not only did segregated education produce negative effects, it also produced no positive effects. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), interracial American organization created to work for the abolition of segregation and discrimination in housing, education, employment, voting, and transportation; to oppose racism; and to ensure African Americans their constitutional rights. Students were not only exposed to the theoretical possibility that law could shape social change, but also had the opportunity to actually work on cases that were changing the law and the society as well. Despite the relative affluence of its black community, Washington was as segregated as any city in the Deep South. There was no state school for the education of Negro lawyers. A victory against a state's single law school or medical school would reverberate across the state. Walter White, Executive Director of the NAACP, over the use of the Garland Fund grant. He indicated that Murray might attend Howard under the auspices of a scholarship for black students who could not attend state institutions. For a short time afterward, he taught in the English department at Howard University. Not surprisingly, terms such as "discrimination," "racism," and "victim" return ample results1,902, 605, and 294, respectively. The Clarks concluded that these studies indicated self-rejection, one of the negative effects of racism on children at the early stages of their development. No matter how much money the state might spend at the black law school, how many faculty members the state might add, how large the student body might grow, or how large the library holdings might become, the qualitative differences in the intangibles associated with the two schools meant that to deny Heman Sweatt admission to the University of Texas was unconstitutional. He too had applied to the University of Maryland's law school in 1930, and like Murray, Marshall was rejected. One of the organization's key victories was the U.S. Supreme Court's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education that outlawed segregation in public schools. It was able to do so in large part because of the remarkable courage of ordinary men and women. Chinese Which of the following is a Latino rights group? With respect to these factors, the University of Texas was the superior school, and the question, the Court said, was not even close. It is not hard to find. It was the NAACP's first major victory in the campaign against segregated higher education. Members of the civil rights movement would find themselves confronting recalcitrant clerks at voter registration offices and gun-toting drivers enforcing segregation on municipal buses. Compared with most other cities, Washington's black community was well educated and relatively well off. Watch acclaimed Black History documentaries on HISTORY Vault. The white law school had 16 full-time and three part-time faculty members and a student body of 850. With more than 500,000 members, the NAACP works locally and nationally to "ensure political, educational, social, and economic equality for all, and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination. Even if he had received a scholarship, the court found that Murray would still be at a significant disadvantage because of the added costs of commuting or relocating. Some early members of the organization, which included suffragists, social workers, journalists, labor reformers, intellectuals and others, had been involved in the Niagara Movement, a civil rights group started in 1905 and led by Du Bois, a sociologist and writer. Jurists were placed in a moral and ethical dilemma. But there was an opening to diminish its importance and pave the way to its undoing. Past winners have included George Washington Carver, Will Smith, Mary J. Blige, Alex Haley, Jesse Jackson and Oprah Winfrey. The NAACP was established in February 1909 in New York City by an interracial group of activists, partially in response to the 1908 Springfield race riot in Illinois. In April 1951, a group of students at Moton High School, a black school in Prince Edward County, Va., organized a strike to protest their high school's shoddy conditions. It would be a phase in which the champions of civil rights would continue the struggle for equal rights in the courts and in other venues. Surprisingly, even the occasional right-wing antigovernment militia will sometimes have a black member or two. Solicitor General Philip Perlman filed an amicus brief supporting the NAACP's position on behalf of the Truman administration. After the meeting, Gardner introduced himself and met with Houston later that night. But the Supreme Court had disposed of the case without addressing Marshall's argument. arguing legal cases in court Read this quotation. Robert Carter and Jack Greenberg were the NAACP's point men for Brown. Raymond T. Diamond is C.J. They all had a common aim: the elimination of Plessy v. Ferguson's "separate but equal" doctrine. While touching on the general social, political, and economic climate in which the NAACP acted, Mark V. Tushnet emphasizes the internal workings of the organization as revealed in its own documents. The District of Columbia's desegregation case began when a local barber, Bishop Gardner, organized the Consolidated Parents Group. The expert witnesses would force the judges to grapple with the realities of segregation. Along the way, the civil rights movement would encounter every conceivable kind of resistance from unofficial and official quarters, but it would succeed in winning over new supporters. Perhaps, but the physical facilities were substantially equal, and besides the new building for the white school could help explain the differences in per capita expenditures for white and black students. Our History. One of the organizations key victories was the U.S. Supreme Courts 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education that outlawed segregation in public schools. The NAACP's fight against segregated education--the first public interest litigation campaign--culminated in the 1954Browndecision. What is clear is that the terrain would have been much bumpier and the playing field an awful lot less level without the efforts of those men and women who developed the strategy, argued the case, and changed history in Brown v. Board of Education. . LEGAL STRATEGIES. The second was to bring cases that would coax the Supreme Court into doing what it had assiduously avoided doing in Sweatt: overturning Plessy. Job opportunities were the primary focus of the National Urban League, which was established in 1910. If a case that made a frontal assault on Plessy lost, it would be a blow to morale, but the NAACP could resume its current campaign to litigate equal protection under the new standards that had developed in Sweatt. Brown began the process of withdrawing the law's sanction from the system of caste and caste-like distinctions that had been a part of American life from the beginning. There were 2,375 white students attending 12 schools. The new law school's temporary facility in Austin turned out to be an office basement; the University of Texas had a permanent facility that housed a law review and a moot courtroom. The new law school had neither. After describing the importance of education to a democratic society, the Court framed the issue as whether "segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race deprives the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities." The NAACP could continue to urge the courts to find segregation inherently unconstitutional. The South Carolina and Kansas cases would also be joined by two separate cases that were filed in Delaware: Gebbart et al. In 1933, Charles Hamilton Houston succeeded Margold as the NAACP's chief attorney. In 1967, he became the first Black Supreme Court justice. After founding the NAACP Legal Defense Fund in 1940, Marshall became the key strategist in the effort to end racial segregation, in particular meticulously challenging Plessy v. Ferguson, the Court-sanctioned legal doctrine that called for separate but equal structures for white and Black people. In representing Sweatt before the Supreme Court, Charles Hamilton Houston and Thurgood Marshall made the same three-part argument that had been rejected by the Texas Court of Civil Appeals. The combination grade school-high school in Claymont served about 400 white students. By the time an appellate court could hear the appeal, the legislature had appropriated $100,000 toward the establishment of a law school at the newly established Texas State University for Negroes in Houston. Among its most significant achievements was the NAACP Legal Defense Fund's challenge to end segregation in . HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. the NAACP focuses on issues that do little to help the black community and may in fact harm it. Founded in 1909, it was at the center of nearly every battle for the rights and dignity of African Americans in the twentieth century. The strategy adopted by the NAACP to end segregation was B. arguing legal cases in court. How did naacp use litigation? Several social science and education experts aided the NAACP in the school desegregation cases, but one stands out for the simple but compelling test that demonstrated the psychological effects of discrimination on young children. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP, is America's oldest and largest civil rights organization. The Court found that it did, concluding that "to separate [black] children from others of similar age and qualifications generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in ways unlikely ever to be undone." Four years later, he was appointed by President Johnson to be solicitor general, and in 1967 President Johnson nominated him to the Supreme Court to which he commented: I have a lifetime appointment and I intend to serve it. In Korematsu, the Court stated that while "all legal restrictions which curtail the civil rights of a single racial group are immediately suspect [t]hat is not to say that all such restrictions are unconstitutional." It is not as overwhelming a part of American culture as it was throughout most of the 20th century, but still, reports of its total demise are woefully premature. The Court had reiterated its frequent admonishment that it "will decide constitutional questions only when necessary to the disposition of the case, and that such decisions will be drawn as narrowly as possible." And the state did not mandate segregation in elementary schools, but for localities above 15,000 in population, the state specifically allowed school segregation as an option. The students intended to remain on strike until the local school board agreed to construct a new school. The third prong of the NAACP's attack was based on the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause. By now it was February 1948, and Heman Sweatt's fight to pursue a legal education at the University of Texas had gone on two years. Through Redfield, Marshall made a record that would support a conclusion that segregation was irrational, and under the Fourteenth Amendment, no distinction that was not rational could stand muster. In the voting rights arena, the NAACP ended Oklahoma's restrictive time limit on when Negroes could register to vote and Texas's all-white primary. But there were far fewer graduate and professional programs and, therefore, fewer targets for a concentrated litigation effort. The attorneys agreed to represent the students not in a case to equalize the facilities, but in a case to desegregate the schools. The results were familiar. The University of Maryland's law school was only open to whites. The Court had interpreted that clause to mean that no state action not grounded in a rational basis could stand constitutional muster. In 1936, Marshall became the NAACPs chief legal counsel. By any concrete measure, the law school at the Texas State University for Negroes was a laughable substitute for the one at the University of Texas. Sweatt was a letter carrier who lived in Texas. At the same time, NAACP members were subject to harassment and violence. Using a combination of tactics including legal challenges, demonstrations and economic boycotts, the NAACP played an important role in helping end segregation in the United States. In 1910, Du Bois started The Crisis, which became the leading publication for Black writers; it remains in publication today. These were sanctioned, indeed often mandated, by law. In this role, he attended the founding convention for the United Nations, channeling his energies toward lobbying the global body to acknowledge the suffering of Black Americans. , a multidisciplinary center within the NAACP Legal Defense Fund. What was the NAACP and what did it do? The political opposition would be intense, perhaps fatal. In 2009, the year he became Americas first Black president, Barack Obama spoke at a celebration of the NAACPs 100th anniversary. NAACP. It had no basis in either educational or enlightened racial theory. Public facilities, public transportation, housing, and public schools were all rigidly segregated. Marshall won a series of court decisions that gradually struck down that doctrine, ultimately leading to. If they were intellectually honest, they could not, on the basis of the extensive evidence presented, rule that segregated schools wereor could ever beequal. There was no library. The Legal Strategy That Brought Down "Separate but Equal" by Toppling School Segregation. I made up my mind that if I got through this war I would study law and use my time fighting for men who could not strike back.". The NAACP's equalization strategy, and the cases litigated by the NAACP in the U.S. District Courts in Virginia, was an instrumental step in the fight to desegregate schools across America. The NAACP also helped organize the 1963 March on Washington, one of the biggest civil rights rallies in U.S. history, and had a hand in running 1964s Mississippi Freedom Summer, an initiative to register Black Mississippians to vote. Sixty percent of Claymont's faculty held master's degrees, compared with 40 percent at Howard. Wells, Archibald Grimke and Mary Church Terrell. The court held that the state had failed in its Fourteenth Amendment obligation to provide an equal education. In effect, the NAACP was making the argument it had made before the Texas court that the formula in Plessy was constitutionally malformed and that the 1896 case should be overruled. Under the leadership of W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. The Legal Strategy That Brought Down "Separate but Equal" by Toppling School Segregation, By Robert J. Cottrol, Raymond T. Diamond, and Leland B. Ware, Paraprofessionals & school-related personnel, Standing united to protect immigrant rights, DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals), Safe and welcoming public schools for all, AFT resources for organizing and back to school programs. The use of such experts as psychologists and social scientists accomplished a number of important goals. In doing so, the NAACP placed before the Court the predictable and unavoidable consequence of segregation: inequality. They are law school graduates and they spend their professional lives working with law school graduates. , which he argued before the Supreme Court in 1952 and 1953, finally overturning separate but equal and acknowledging that segregation greatly diminished students self-esteem. The NAACP challenged the law and won a legal victory in 1915 when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Guinn v. United States that grandfather clauses were unconstitutional. Added 2/3/2022 5:18:03 AM This answer has been confirmed as correct and helpful. They then made a series of commands. In an interview published in 1992 in the American Bar Association Journal, Marshall wrote that Charlie Houston insisted that we be social engineers rather than lawyers, a mantra that he upheld and personified. Murray, the court noted, had been "denied admission on the sole ground of his color." The new school had only one alumnus. The Negro university had only five part-time members and a tiny student body. While practicing law in Washington, D.C., Houston taught law part-time at Howard University Law School. The disparities were too obvious. Washington Post. The opinion allowed state officials six months to establish a black law school. Today, the raw racism that prevailed in daily life, popular culture, and academic treatise at the beginning of the last century has become an embarrassing relic, defended by only a marginalized few in public life. what did Carver and Delia discover about the Ripper's victims? After WWII,. He graduated as a valedictorian from Amherst College in 1915 at age 19. This argument also concerned the equal protection clause, for a racial classification that was arbitrary and irrational could not satisfy the demands of the equal protection clause either. Ultimatelyafter more than 100 years of effortthe NAACP and other groups were able to get a federal anti-lynching law passed and signed by President Joe Biden in 2022. During this era, the NAACP also successfully lobbied for the passage of landmark legislation including the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, barring racial discrimination in voting. " He was commissioned as a first lieutenant after attending a training camp for Negro officers in Des Moines, Iowa. These articles were especially adapted for American Educator by Robert J. Cottrol from Brown v. Board of Education: Caste, Culture, and the Constitution, by Robert J. Cottrol, Raymond T. Diamond, and Leland B. Ware (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003) by permission of the publisher. The annual expenditures for these schools were $673,850. Two things were left to the NAACP. The British prime minister observed: "This is not the end, no it is not even the beginning of the end, but it is perhaps the end of the beginning." Third, the testimony of experts refuted widely held beliefs about the intellectual inferiority of Afro-Americans. Tushnet cites W.E.B. In 1962, Medgar Evers, the first NAACP field secretary in Mississippi, was assassinated outside his home in Jackson by a white supremacist. His use of Redfield's testimony also showed that social science could be an important tool in the quest to vindicate the constitutional requirement of equal protection under the law. All Rights Reserved. An effective way to demonstrate this is to search terms using the search engine on the NAACP's website. Furthermore, because of the rapid growth in the city's black population during World War II, housing conditions in poor communities were deplorable, and black schools were inferior to white schools. U.S. House of Representatives. Marshall graduated first in his class and passed the Maryland bar in 1933. The experiments consistently showed that the participating black children preferred the white dolls. His legacy cannot be overstated: he worked diligently and tirelessly to end what was Americas official doctrine of separate-but-equal. Updated: March 29, 2023 | Original: October 29, 2009. Few in the modern behavioral or biological sciences support the kind of scientific racism that was heartily championed at the best universities a century ago. Former NAACP Branch Secretary Rosa Parks' refusal to yield her seat to a white man sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the modern civil rights movement. That might work. He did get through. The trial court opinion stated that state officials were under no obligation to admit him to the University of Texas. Their offices were at the University of Texas. In 1910, Oklahoma passed a constitutional amendment allowing people whose grandfathers had been eligible to vote in 1866 to register without passing a literacy test. The annual expenditures for these schools were $194,575. Given the temper of the times, Margold recognized that it wouldn't do to attack school segregation under any and all circumstances. Asked by Justice Felix Frankfurter during the argument what he meant by equal, Mr. Marshall replied, Equal means getting the same thing, at the same time, and in the same place. But the new NAACP position did not require the sacrifice of the strategy that had brought victory in Sweatt and the other cases. Affirmative action programs exist to try to increase the number of minority students admitted to universities or minority employees hired by firms. The strategy NAACP use to try to end segregation is: "Separate but Equal" by Toppling School Segregation. Among Marshalls salient majority opinions for the Supreme Court were: Amalgamated Food Employees Union v. Logan Valley Plaza, in 1968, which determined that a mall was public forum and unable to exclude picketers; Stanley v. Georgia, in 1969, held that pornography, when owned privately, could not be prosecuted. But "out-of-wedlock births" returns only one . Elementary schools were segregated, as the junior high school had been until 1941 litigation ended the practice. Moreover, the liberalization of racial attitudes that started becoming part of American culture before the Second World War, a liberalization that provided an important, perhaps critical backdrop to the Brown decision, has continued. Black children, in contrast, were required to travel by bus to Howard High in Wilmington, the only black high school in the entire state. The state legislature had passed a statute in response to Murray's lawsuit. A.They were killed at the same time as the Ripper's victims in London B.The last names of the victims were spelling out "Ripper" C.The all had children born the same month as Carver D.The women had all been adopted when they were young children Marshall had traditionally been cautious. There were several plaintiffs, but Oliver Brown's name came first alphabetically, and as a result, when the case was filed in the federal court on February 14, 1951, the case bore his name. Murray was noteworthy. Boards of education that ran elementary and secondary schools had an arsenal of potential defenses for differences between white and black schools. 3. Brown was also enacted by the courageous Americans of all races who struggled in the civil rights movement to make it the foundation of a modern body of civil rights law. It was formed in New York City by white and Black activists, partially in response to the ongoing violence against Black Americans around the country. The key to the cases lay in the innovative use of expert testimony to establish the psychological harm that segregation inflicted on African-American schoolchildren. It was written in a straightforward style that could be understood by the most unsophisticated reader. The historically white University of Tennessee also admitted black students to previously segregated programs, bringing the total of southern states doing so to six. 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